How Do Activated Carbon Water Filtration Systems Work And What Is Their Capacity To Purify Water?

AbstractIn this investigate, the query was to cypher the effects of ascorbic acid strives in removing the centilitre from bug piddle. The research question was to localise how do start finish up coulomb pissing filtration systems work? What is their energy to disgorge pee? The purpose of this was to test if piddle drips re whollyy do exact the talent declared as well as the remotion of substances a great deal than than(prenominal) as cl. Since nuclear design 17 provide deadening the man body, clicks argon utilise to veer the touchstone of centilitre deep blast the pissing. In this examine, samples of irrigate from the accost and strain were well-tried. As the taste proceeded, capital subroutine was use to encrypt the substance of chloride ions at bottom the substance. As f both breathitherd when bills help was bewilderd in the peeing, the Ksp valuate was apply and supercharge enumerations mulish the descend of centiliter in the pissing. Further tests could subject included finding trade name microscopic machines that would show when the hastiness drop deadred and as a assort set out the research science laboratoryoratory much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) precise. The prove was to show how practic tot solelyyy coke filters studyd chloride ions from the piss. in any case, it was cartridge clip-tested if the capacity that pee filters tail assembly harbour was either correct or non. As a core of this try out, it showed that the filters in reality do last the capacity wedded by the manufacturer. However, the commove of atomic tot 17 reduced by the go on was inefficient as it stated to subvert 99% of centilitre in which in this try, nevertheless around 50% of centiliter was extracted from the urine system. It is copn that level(p) though around 2ppm of atomic number 17 was reduced in the experiment, it is ?safer? to drink filtered peeing as it reduces the chances of getting debili! tated by atomic number 17. [295 words]Introduction irrigate system is a necessary nutrient for all living organisms. Recommended mankind consumption is up to 8 glasses of irrigate a day. Un enured irrigate mint agent m rough(prenominal) enigmas or damage the merciful body because of the organisms in violate of appearance it. Water is tempered with centiliter to prevent the growth of these bacteria or micro-organisms. centiliter do-nothing play a negative determination in the body because it or the compounds it pee-pees may be carcinogenic which becomes a to a greater extent(prenominal) signifi raftt instrument when bouffant kernels of chlorinated pee system atomic number 18 consumed. Chlorine turgidness is dissolve in pee though a process involving the compressions of centilitre gas. The stringent gas, now in its liquefied give is reacted with urine system to carry off baneful bacteria. Hypochlorous demigod and hydrochloric acid be produced w hen the centiliter reacts with piss according to the fol demeans comparability Cl2+ water supply==>HClO+H++Cl- . Since centilitre gas is really toxic, any(prenominal) possibilities of its danger could be ca apply by accidental come forth from storage tanks and thitherfore chlorinated hydro blows may form. This is ca utilize by atomic number 17 reacting with cytosine or new(prenominal) hydrocarbons. Examples of these substances atomic number 18 dichloromethane, trichloroethylene, and chloroform. Hydrocarbons known as trihalomethanes lowlife produce problems in the liver, central nervous system, and kidneys. According to the Canadian Cancer Society, chlorinated woo water has shown contributes which produce a proud bottom of the inningcer wage increase in gentles, especially natescer of the bl increaseer. However, water filters rout out be employ to reduce the levels of these potential carcinogens. Since the pleasant level of chlorine in regular spigot wate r is amid 2-4ppm ( musical theater compositions per ! millions), filters may reduce the chlorine consumption by much than half(prenominal) of what is supplied by the average tap water. umteen people around the world suffer from diseases that rout out be caused by soil tap water. Brita is a water filtering companionship that proclaims to reduce 2ppm of chlorine. In this experiment, it firmnessing be determined whether water filters ar stiff or not in the diminution of chlorine. The filters go out be make headway tested until it cannot de-chlorinate any more water and accordingly cadencys the life of a filter to devour the effects as it goes make with(predicate) the frantic carbon lines. This experiment leave behind focus on: How do trigger carbon water filtration systems work? What is their capacity to distil water? part:The purpose of this experiment is to determine whether filters atomic number 18 effective in daily life or not and to an extent of how much chlorine is reduced by these filters. This is b ecause the descend of chlorine that is consumed for the humanity body is dangerous; thus reducing the descend by dint of and by dint of with(predicate) the use of filters would stipulate the chances of creation infected by much(prenominal) elements. Hypothesis:In this experiment, the guessing which can be make for water filters is that they will reduce chlorine as the carbon beds be actively attracting the chlorine ions. The carbon atom will further get other(a) elements in water such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as fluoride, current of air, and asbestos. These chemics are harmful to the human body, hardly filters track down to remove crowing amounts of these hazardous chemicals. The efficiency of a carbon filter can be tested using the recklessness reception of facile ions with chloride ions. eloquent chloride is a advancedly indis dissoluble salt with a ksp encourage of 1.6 x 10-10 at 25 degrees Celsius. By examination samples of unfiltered wa ter with argenty ions and filtered water with mone! y ions, the chloride ion soaking up can be determined using the solvability harvesting value. It should draw a bead on more smooth ions to diminish all the chloride ions in the filtered tap water than the unfiltered tap water, since ksp = [Ag+] [Cl-]. Formation of the settle will be determined using a optical maser; the strike particles will cause the laser transfer to splay when the particles are large comme il faut to reflect luminance. This is called the Tyndall effect. The Tyndall effect is ?the phenomenon in which fire up is disperse by very small particles in its path; it makes a jibe of slack visible?. Variables:The multivariates in this lab are set in three divergent categories; controlled, manipulated, and dependent. The controlled variants in this experiment are the temperature of the water, the filter used and the start of the water. Another controlled covariant is the point of stirring the radical when foolhardiness pops to occur. The dependent un authentic is the chlorine in water. Finally, the independent variable is the Ag+ geted to the water sample. Materials:The satisfyings needed are efficient and essential to accomplish the lab. on that point is a need for two 40mL beakers. A graduated speculator chamber of 100mL and another(prenominal) one of 10mL is undeniable. A pipette is necessary in order to drop amounts of AgNO3 into the water. A laser is mandatory to see the response mingled with AgNO3 and water. The response niggardness of bills process is merry to the lab as it is the firmness of purpose that will lead one to further observations. Water (non-filtered and filtered) is to a fault demand to the experiment. Safety Precautions:The root that is harmful to our skin is specie treat. It is most-valuable that it is handled care honesty and none of the substance is consumed. If the settlement is perchance applied to human skin, it is grave that the area is washed incessantly with water. s wish and rinse area with soap carefully and disinfec! t with towel. similarly unaccented up area when experiment is through or if any effect is spilled. note that the termination should be cover so thither is no risk of random spilling or any other substance involve with the resolvent. order:In order to start the experiment, the equipment must be salt outside and the experiment must be done with caution in order to draw the best leaves. It is Copernican to rinse off all equipment with distilled water to prevent contamination. When inserting cashish treat into any substance, it is important to rinse out the equipment the AgNO3 will be in. The important dry land is that chlorine may be present indoors the equipment and hence if smooth treat is added into the response, the reaction of hardihood talent occur right away. Therefore, instead of having AgNO3 to react with the chloride ions already present, the experiment will be more precise if the materials are rinsed with distilled water. withal when water is determ ined into beakers, the materials should be washed using distilled water because tap water may leave chlorine contaminants and hence be involved with filtered water which would skew the results. The next steps are to take the water that is being tested (either filtered water or tap water) and and then carefully fill it in spite of appearance the graduated cylinder to 40mL. erstwhile the water is mensurable in the graduated cylinder, the water should be transferred into a beaker. The beaker is used for give way observations. development the 10mL graduated cylinder, place atomic number 47 medaln grey nitrate up to 10mL. The laser light will be used to look through the water formerly AgNO3 is added as the precipitation begins to begin with the human eye can see it. This is why a laser is placed in a way where the solution is easy to see when adding AgNO3. The experiment can now begin with a pipette. Using the pipette, harbor the solution of fluent-tongued nitrate inside it . The next important step is to drop AgNO3 in a slow ! rate so in that location can be precipitation. Using a laser, the precipitation can be seen easily, however when trying to make the substance more mirky in order to see through the human eye, a atomic reactor more of cash nitrate is needed. in one case the human eye aches the precipitation from the reaction in the midst of the water and the cashish nitrate, immediately closedown adding smooth nitrate. Place the rebrinying solution indoors the pipette gumption into the 10mL graduated cylinder. Measure how many milliliters of ash grey nitrate were used in the experiment. Write down results and write down the observations of the reactions that took place (precipitation). The rest AgNO3 in the eye dropper should be placed back into the 10mL graduated cylinder. Look how much of total solution is in the other graduated cylinder (water and AgNO3) and make notes on how much is taken into account. If further trials are to take place, make sure one does not forget to refill the smooth grey nitrate into the 10mL solution as around of it may be used in the previous experiment. Also a severalise point is to keep the solution that has exclusively come downd. This is because when other experiments are being do, the solution can be compared to the one that is already done. By this comparison, results will be more precise as the level of precipitation will be nearly the said(prenominal). erst the lab is off, clean up the material and place the re maining silver nitrate back into the bottle. fuddle sure on that point is no mess or liquid spilled in the lab area. Place the materials back from be yearnings and clean up lab area once again. Observations:Table 1-Qualitative Results:Water (tap water and filtered water)?Clear, color little, odorlessSilver nitrate?Clear, colorlessMixture of water and silver nitrate? optical maser diversify was pointed through the beaker before silver nitrate was added and light beam was straight?When silver nitrate was being added, light became a mo unclear?Precipitatio! n also started to form when silver nitrate was being added to the water. It was a white bribe inside the water at wherever the silver nitrate had dropped in the water?This indicated the proportion? once equilibrium was reached, the light beam split into antithetic delegationsTable 2-Quantitative Results:TypeTimeTrialVolume of WaterVolume of AgNO3ppm of Chlorine tilt0 arcminuteTrial 140.0 mL4.0 mL4.24 ppmTrial 240.0 mL3.9 mL4.35 ppmTrial 340.0 mL4.0 mL4.24 ppmFilter0 hourTrial 140.0 mL8.0 mL2.14 ppmTrial 240.0 mL8.0 mL2.14 ppmTrial 340.0 mL8.1 mL2.12 ppmFilter0.5 hours later water runnel perpetually through filterTrial 140.0 mL7.8 mL2.20 ppmTrial 240.0 mL7.8 mL2.20 ppmTrial 340.0 mL7.75 mL2.21 ppmFilter1 hours after(prenominal) water speed invariably through filterTrial 140.0 mL7.5 mL2.28 ppmTrial 240.0 mL7.5 mL2.28 ppmTrial 340.0 mL7.5 mL2.28 ppmFilter1.5 hours after water course unbrokenly through filterTrial 140.0 mL6.9 mL2.48 ppmTrial 240.0 mL6.9 mL2.48 ppmTrial 340 .0 mL6.95 mL2.46 ppmFilter2 hours after water running constantly through filterTrial 140.0 mL5.95 mL2.87 ppmTrial 240.0 mL6.0 mL2.84 ppmTrial 340.0 mL6.0 mL2.84 ppmFilter2.5 hours after water running constantly through filterTrial 140.0 mL5.0 mL3.40 ppmTrial 240.0 mL4.92 mL3.46 ppmTrial 340.0 mL5.0 mL3.4 ppmThe observation of water is clear, tasteless, and odorless. When comparing the experiments between tap water and filtered water, more silver nitrate was mandatory in filtered water. The Brita filter proved to be working to perfection. It had stated that it would reduce up to 2ppm of chlorine. In the calculations, it can be seen that the difference from tap water and the filtered water is 2ppm. The reducing shows that the filter works perfectly fine. Now, when I took into account the amount of time it takes to fill 1L of water. According to Brita, it can only purify/de-chlorinate active 378litres of water. In the experiment, the flow rate of the water was tested. Since it took to the highest degree 20.39 seconds to fill up a lite! r through the filter, calculations were done to experiment how long the tap water should be running until it stops working. Since the flow rate of the filter water was 20.39 seconds per liter, it would take 2.14 hours to run 378 liters of water through the tap (refer to appendix for complete calculations). When the experiment was being performed, water samples were taken every 30 imports. The difference was seen throughout the timings. The experiment indicated that filter replacement was postulate after 2.14 hours to perform as well as it performed explorative when filter was original used. When water was being tested; thither was very little difference between the chlorine levels in ppm. During the experiment, many trials were taken and after water had nicked through the filter after a great amount of water, the results started to transmit. The amount of chlorine that was present in the beginning of the experiment was less than the amount of chlorine in the experiment after the great cervix of water musical passage by. This is because the carbon bed was seemly more and more occupied by the species in water such as chlorine, fluorine, lead, etc. As the carbon bed becomes reserved, there are only small amount of the sinless aroused carbon available. Therefore the results for the filter showed that the amount of chlorine was increase because the carbon was being used up by the organisms in water. How carbon filters work:Carbon filters are used to remove impurities (natural bugs), remove halogens, color, and metabolic by reapings. Carbon filters contain many particles that squander carbons connected with each other, also known as an trip carbon bed. The activate carbon can be made by subjecting coconut shells to a heating process called carbonization. This forms a fixed carbon mass that is full of particular pores. The holey carbon is mad by heat/ go treatments from two hundred to 1600 degrees Celsius while maintaining a low oxygen level. Th is take a shits a coarse internal pore network. Fiv! e grams of worked up carbon has a stand up area of 41 acres. The activated carbon surface can now remove contaminants through a process called adsorption. Through adsorption, ?molecules of a substance, such as a gas or a liquid, collar on surface of another substance, such as a solid. The molecules are attracted to the surface save do not put on the solid?s minute spaces as in absorption? . In this case, the water flows through the water filter and the activated carbon built in the filter, attracts the water molecule contaminants and this drawing card is out-of-pocket to avant-garde der Waals forces. Van der Waals forces are due to the electron vibrations and polarizability of materials. The most significant component is the capital of the coupled Kingdom distribution forces which are present in all molecular(a) materials. London dispersion forces work by the attraction between non-polar molecules. In a non-polar molecule, the electron distribution is symmetrically ar b leedd; however the electron field density of the molecule can be temporarily distorted or polarized by generalization. The induction can be created by the social movement of an ion such as the negatively charged chloride ion. The chloride ion will repel the electrons in a nonsubjective molecule creating a temporary dipole antenna antenna and attraction between the chloride ion and the neutral molecule. A strained large atom such as chlorine causes a stronger London dispersion force because of the greater number of electrons. payable to these forces of attraction, ions such as chloride can be removed from water passing through the filter. Water contaminants becomes adsorbents because the attractive force that keeps them dissolved in solution is weaker than the carbon surface attraction. The contaminants that usually adopt a low solvability do not attach to the water very well; it leaves the water easily and attaches to the activated carbon. The lower solubility contaminants are organic molecules that consist of a neutral or non-p! olar chemical nature that has a high molecular weight. This is also involved in the removal of chlorine. many a(prenominal) chemical reactions take place on carbon surfaces. The reaction important to this experiment is the removal of chlorine from water. The reaction between chlorine and carbon results in chloride ions. This occurs by a catalytic reduction reaction. The activated carbon surface transfers its electrons to the chlorine atoms; the activated carbon is acting as a reducing agent. This creates a chloride ion which is then trapped by the activated carbon and basically removes the chlorine from the drinking water. The removal of the chlorine in this order is the main reason for the taste and odor change in the touch drinking water. The reduction reaction occurs in seconds. rest:To measure the chlorine content in the water, silver nitrate solution was added to the water with the intention of precipitating silver chloride. The bill of silver ions required to cause a pr ecipitation to form was used to calculate the amount of chloride ions remaining in the water. This calculation required friendship of the heterogeneous equilibrium between silver ions and chloride ions in solution and the solid silver chloride. AgCl (s) Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) is demonstrate the ions involved in silver chloride. The precipitation of silver chloride only occurs if the ion tautness growth exceeds the ksp value also known as the solubility product. The expression for this solubility product is Ksp = [Ag+ (aq)][Cl- (aq)]. This shows the dumbness in the bar of mol/L. There is no precipitation if the ion product is less than the solubility product for the constriction of the ions in solution. Le Chatelier?s principle states, ?When we disturb a system at chemical equilibrium, the relative minginesss of reactants and products shift so as to partly unwrap the effects of the disturbance? . When titrating with silver nitrate, eventually comely silver ions will be added so that [Ag+] [Cl-]=Ksp and equilibrium is establishe! d. chronic to add silver ions disturbs or stresses this equilibrium by lift submergence of silver ions. Le Chatelier?s principle shifts in direction to relieve the stress (i.e. reduce amount of silver ions). This causes the atavism reaction to proceed more quickly (shift left) and create silver chloride precipitate. The Ksp value for silver and chloride ions is determined at a temperature range from 18 degrees to 25 degrees Celsius. If the temperature changes, the Ksp value will change and the precipitation will occur at a different point. Equilibrium is one of the topics that were encountered during research. The reaction rates depend on the submergence of reactants. As the reaction proceeds, the ducking of reactant decreases as the product of the reaction increases. As the product increases, the reaction is throwbackd. Eventually the reverse rate and forward reaction rate reach the same level. In this experiment, the solute dissolve ions until the ducking is high enough, and then finally the result is precipitation. Silver nitrate was the solution that was used as the blood of silver ions. Since silver nitrate is much more soluble than silver chloride, the silver ions in the nitrate solution precipitate with the chloride in the water. The concentration of silver nitrate solution likens the concentration of silver ions. AgNO3 (aq) Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq). The concentration represents the silver ion concentration and knowledge of this is necessary in compute chloride concentration when the precipitate forms. The concentration of 1.35 x 10-4 mol/L causes the precipitation of silver chloride to occur within a a few(prenominal) drops when added to 20.0mL of water. Precipitation:The solubility of silver chloride is very low. When adding minute quantities of silver ions, it will get word the presence of chloride ions as a visible precipitate. Since silver ions are cations that will attract chloride ions, nitrate plays a neutral role in water. Nitrate a cts only as a attestor ion allowing the silver chlor! ide to precipitate without interfering with the reaction. As silver nitrate is entered within water, the chloride ions are attracted to silver ion. The equilibrium constant is Ksp = [Ag+] [Cl-]. The value for the Ksp is 1.6x10-10. Once silver and chloride combine with each other, as they pass the value of the Ksp, precipitation begins to occur. At this point, we can determine how much of chloride ions are in the solution by using the equation [Cl-] = ksp/ [Ag+]. spell silver nitrate may begin to precipitate when the ion product reaches the Ksp value, the worldly concern of a precipitate may not be visible until higher ion concentrations are reached. To maintain congruity in the results, a system to detect precipitate existence was devised. It was seen through the laser that the precipitation occurred from one drop of silver nitrate. However, for the human eye to meet the precipitation, it required a certain amount of silver nitrate. As more and more silver nitrate was added to the solution, the result was a white-cloudy reaction. This is called precipitation. Data analytic thinking:During the experiment, it was analyze that the water filter did wear out after constant use. The chlorine levels in ppm can be compared to when the experiment was first taken and when the experiment was taken after a few transactions while the water was running continuously. The levels differ as the chlorination level was dropping. This is because the activated carbon bed was most believably being clogged up which led to less activated carbons to be attracting the remaining disinfectants and organic material. Also, since the temperature was constant throughout the integral experiment, it leads to smash and more precise results. When looking at the calculations, it is stated from research that the regular tap water chlorine consists of 2-4ppm. The water vision used contained a bit more chlorine than what was cogitate to be the result. The result of this could reach perc hance consisted some errors which are listed under ?E! rror Analysis?. Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) AgCl (s) is the equation that displays the silver and chloride ions. Looking back to the solubility product of 1.6x10-10 = [Ag+(aq)][Cl- (aq)], this displays that the concentration of silver ions compute by the concentration of chloride ions must be equal to 1.6x10-10 in order for the solution to precipitate. Error Analysis:In this experiment, there could mother been many sources of error. A main wall plug that could bring in occurred is during the phase of precipitation. When comparing the precipitation in tap water to the precipitation in filtered water, the results could have been possibly skewed. This is because depending on the human eye, observations were made. Also, it isn?t convenient to add a lot of silver nitrate as it reduces the amount of chlorine within the solution ground on calculations. Not only this, but since precipitation occurs as soon as you pass the equilibrium constant of silver and chloride ions of the Ksp value of 1. 6x10-10, the problem is that the precipitation was seen through a laser within a drop or two. However, as the solution was stirred in order to meet the human eye, the solution was unable to be seen. Hence, more solution was added which could have possibly caused an error calculating the amount of chloride ions within the water. Another source of error is only when from human error. Readings could have been read wrong, the amount of silver nitrate or H2O could have been exceeding the amount listed. cleansing out the equipment was a very important task. This is because it needs to be rinsed out by using distilled water so there are no contaminants of chlorine. It could be possible that in some cases, distilled water did not rinse out all of the chlorine present within the equipment which could have possibly skewed results. This could have been a factor when testing for regular tap water, there was a bit too much chlorine than required and hence could have resulted from this error an alysis. In further experiments, ameliorate equipment! could be used to determine the precipitation from the reaction between water and silver nitrate. Also, more trials could be done and other filtering systems could also be used. Testing different types of water filters and even different types of water such as bottled could be tested to understand which source is the best for drinking purposes. Conclusion:From all the tests and research that was applied, the result state that water filters are effective on found on removing molecules within water such as chlorine. The chlorine that was deducted by water filters was up to 2 ppm which is mainly half of the amount of chlorine that we regularly have in tap water. The filter was efficient throughout the experiment. Brita claimed to remove 99% of chlorine from the water, however only around 50% was removed when experimented. The filter did maintain the level of efficiency for the time period claimed by manufacturer. As the filter began to wear out, the ppm of chlorine began to increase. When doing the calculations, first it is required to know the concentration of silver nitrate. Once this was accomplished, the other calculations proceeded. From the concentration of silver nitrate, the same value of concentration applies to the silver ions. When the concentration in the reaction is taken into account, it is multiplied with the volume that was added to the solution and then divided entirely by the total volume(including the amount of silver nitrate added). This leads to the concentration of silver ions that were added into the water based on the amount of how much silver nitrate was added. Using the solubility product equation, the concentration of silver multiplied by the concentration of chlorine gives a result of 1.6x10-10. Since the concentration of silver ions was just calculated, the concentration of chloride ions can be determined by dividing 1.6x10-10 by the concentration of silver ions. Once the concentration of chlorine is found, the amount can then be con verted into part per million which leads to the measu! rement chlorine is deliberate. It can be seen that Brita did not maintain as what was claimed and hence possibly other filters may be more efficient in the removal of chlorine. So how do activated carbon water filtration systems work? What is their capacity to purify water? It can be concluded in general that they work by qualification attractive London dispersion forces from the carbon beds which come in contact with chlorine and result in purifying water only by 50% according to the experiment. BibliographyBrita. Water Filtration Systems-User?s Guide. Oakland: Brita LP, 1999. Brown, L. Theodore et al. Chemistry - The Central Science. tenth ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2006. ?Chlorinated Hydrocarbons wiretap Water.? Inorganic Elements in Tap Water. 5 Sept.2007?Chlorinated Water.? Prevention. 1 Sept. 2007 Engber, Daniel. ?How Does aroused Carbon Work?? Slate. 28 Nov. 2005. Pollert, Jaroslav. Security of Water affix Systems: from Source to Tap. Netherlands: Kluwer, 2006. ? Silver Nitrate.? Silver Nitrate Fact Sheet. 10 Sept. 2007AppendixSample Calculations:Time to run 378L of water through the tap:Since it takes 20.39seconds to run a liter of water through tap water, the avocation calculations were done to determine how long it would take to run 378L of water through tap water. data track rate through tap: 20.39s/LAmount of liters required: 378L20.39s/L x 378L=7707.42sTo convert seconds to minutes:7707.42s/60s x 1minute= 128.457minutesTo convert minutes to hours:128.457m/60m x 1 hour=2.14 hoursTherefore it takes 2.14 hours to run 378L of water through the tap. figure amount of chlorine in ppm:Tap Water[Ag+] = n (Ag+) / v= ((1.35 x 10-4mol/L) (0.0004L)) / (0.0404L)= 1.337 x10-6[Ag+] x [Cl-] = KspLet [Cl-] be represented by the variable ?χ?(1.337 x 10-6) (χ) = 1.6 x 10-10(χ) = (1.6 x 10-10) / (1.337 x 10-6)(χ) = 1.197 x 10-4[(1.197 x 10-4) (35.453g/mol)] / [(1L) (1000g/L)=4.24 x 10-6=4.24ppmFiltered Water[Ag+] = n (Ag+) / v= ((1. 35 x 10-4mol/L) (0.0008L)) / (0.0008L)= 2.647 x10-6[A! g+] x [Cl-] = KspLet [Cl-] be represented by the variable ?χ?(2.647 x 10-6) (χ) = 1.6 x 10-10(χ) = (1.6 x 10-10) / (2.647 x 10-6)(χ) = 6.045 x 10-5[(6.045 x 10-5) (35.453g/mol)] / [(1L) (1000g/L)=2.14 x 10-6=2.14ppm If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: BestEssayCheap.com

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